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Preface
The notion that all human beings have certain rights,
simply by virtue of being human, appears very early in history. A variety of
ancient and medieval texts, from Buddhist scriptures to the Magna Carta,
undertake to define the precise rights (and the corresponding obligations)
of individuals, family members, occupational groups, and social classes, and
to ensure that these rights are understood and respected by all. What we now
call "human rights" are dealt with explicitly in such 18th-century
political documents as the American Declaration of Independence and the U.S.
Consititution, and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man; the
continuing evolution of these concepts is reflected in numerous 20th-century
regional and international declarations, conventions, resolutions, and laws.
Since the end of World War II, human rights have become a matter for
worldwide concern, an element in international relations, and the subject of
international law. Many organizations and governments now routinely gather
information and issue reports on human rights around the world.
Human rights became a central issue in the postwar world
for several reasons. The war itself included such horrors as genocide by the
Nazis against Jews, gypsies, gays, and the handicapped, and large-scale
violations, on both sides, of civilian and prisoner rights; these crimes,
when they became known, aroused widespread revulsion. Subsequently, as
colonial empires disintegrated, indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities
claimed rights they had previously been denied. In the United States the
civil rights campaign carried out by African Americans inspired other groups—Native
Americans, women, gays, the disabled—to protest other forms of injustice.
In some respects, today’s worldwide interest in human rights reflects the
spread of Western values, particularly the emphasis on individualism and the
promise of liberty and justice, as well as a determination never to repeat
the atrocities of the past. That such atrocities can still occur became
evident in the 1990s in Rwanda and in the former Yugoslavia.
It needs to be emphasized that the worldwide interest in
human rights is not without its controversies and conflicts. Three are most
significant. The first is a question of interpretation—does the concept of
human rights as set forth in the Universal Declaration and subsequent
documents apply only to individuals or also to entire groups, such as
religious groups, ethnic minorities, or indigenous peoples? Human rights
advocates argue that rights should be extended to entire groups, as a
mechanism for offering broader protection. But many national governments
prefer to define rights as individual rights only, so as to limit human
rights cases to adjudication within their own borders.
The second controversy concerns "affirmative
action" programs, like those for African Americans in the United States
and for Untouchables in India. The issue is whether individuals and groups
who were subjected to discrimination in the past should be afforded special,
compensatory rights in the present. Some believe this is only fair and the
only way to reverse the ill effects of discrimination. Others believe such
differential treatment, no matter how well intentioned, is itself a form of
discrimination, either against individual members of the compensated group,
who may not wish to be so identified, or against members of other groups
that are not eligible for special treatment.
The third controversy concerns the cross-cultural
relevance of current conceptions of human rights. To some in the non-Western
world, the current definitions and laws are seen as reflecting Western
individualistic values and ignoring non-Western values, which may place the
needs of the group above those of the individual. This is especially an
issue for nations that rely (formally or informally) on Islamic law, which
places the Muslim community in the forefront. Some experts see this
"Western bias" as an impediment to the adoption and enforcement of
human rights protections in all nations.
The purpose of this volume is to provide a chronological
history of human rights. While the United States receives the most detailed
coverage, much information is provided about other regions and nations and
about international developments. The earliest entry is for c. 3000 b.c.e.,
with chronology running through 2002.
Human rights are defined broadly and the chronology is
divided into nine chapters:
1. Human Rights—General
2. Civil Rights
3. Religious Rights
4. Women’s Rights
5. Indigenous Rights
6. Children’s Rights
7. Gay Rights
8. Disabled Rights
9. Refugee Rights
Each chapter provides coverage of events, trends, people,
publications, laws, court cases, government action and inaction,
organizations, inventions, discoveries, and ideas bearing on human rights.
Chapter 1 also provides extracts from key documents. Particularly for the
post-1945 period, much attention is given to international developments.
Numerous sources were consulted to compile this
chronology. These include governmental, organizational, and individual Web
sites; books, periodicals, newsletters; newspapers; and human rights
documents and reports. Readers are directed to the bibliography for a list
of major sources and works that can provide additional information on human
rights.
Compiling this chronology was a group effort, and the
following individuals merit acknowledgment and thanks for their
contributions: Mickey Friedman, Robert Ridinger, Ben Manning, Marcy Ross,
and Ann Farkas. At H. W. Wilson, Lynn Messina, Gray Young, Jennifer Peloso,
Norris Smith, and Sandra Watson.
David Levinson
February 2003
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